Happy Camper, that’s me!

Snow School – what I’ve been waiting for! I’ve heard from many Happy Camper alums all about the excitements and trials of Snow School, and now I’ve survived my own, so I can tell you first-hand what it’s really like. 

So, Snow School is a two-day survival school, where you learn how to survive in the Antarctic if you are in the field or in the unfortunate position of being stranded and need rescue. My Snow School class was made up of 20 eager students and was led by 2 very capable instructors. We started out the school by going over risk management, cold weather injuries (such as frostbite, hypothermia, foot immersion, and dehydration), and proper gear use. After these class room talks, we loaded up into ice trucks and headed out to the field. Out in the field, we learned how to light a stove, pitch tents (Scott tents – especially designed for the Antartic cold, normal mountain tents, and dig snow trenches – for the case where you have no survival tent), use High Frequency Radios and Very High Frequency Radios, build snow walls to protect from the wind, and practice survival scenarios. It was really a great experience. But I think instead of babbling on, it’s more interesting to see the pictures so you can see for yourself!

 Here we are, arriving in the field. Our instructor is obviously instructing us. She's emphasizing how in the field, team work is really important.

 Learning to light a stove.

 Pitching a Scott tent. A heavy duty tent designed to protect people from the tough Antarctic weather.

 Pitching a mountain tent. A tent typically used by most campers.

 Building a snow wall to protect the mountain tents from the harsh Antarctic winds.

Preparing dinner.

 Taking a break from all that work. Building a snow wall is really difficult! Those blocks are heavy!

 Eating dinner. Soup in a bag. yum.

My shelter for the night. All of the Happy Campers could choose where they wanted to shelter for the night. We were taught how to pitch tents and build snow trenches (basically trenches in the snow that provide shelter if you are in a survival situation without a tent). I decided to pitch in with a friend and build an igloo. Unfortunately, our igloo collapsed and we had to turn our igloo into a makeshift trench. Luckily it held well.

 Here's the inside. We covered the top of the trench-igloo with sleds and then packed that with snow for insulation.

 It was quite cozy. It was very important to pack all of the holes with snow in order to keep out the wind and prevent spin drift (basically whipping winds inside the shelter).

 Here I am, the next morning. Now who can say they've spent a night out in Antarctica - a real night out in Antarctica (without a tent).

 Hooray! We survived the night. And what a night it was - a snow storm hit, but I didn't even know it - the trench-igloo was really well insulated.

 Almost white out conditions at some points.

 Hooray Happy Campers!

 Later that day we had more trainings on survival gear.

 Learned about radios.

 We actually set up an HF radio and called South Pole station. The weather deteriorated a bit (here I believe it's Condition 2).

But we survived! Here we are in an ice truck, heading back to McMurdo.

Back at McMurdo, we had a final training on helicopter safety, and that was the end of Snow School. One of the key lessons I've learned here is that in survival situations, team work is really the key to survival. And, having a good team of people really made this a great experience. I've met people who I'll remember for the rest of my life. There are some things you do that you just have to bond over, and this was one of them.

Tomorrow I’m slated to head off to the field! Our helicopter flight is arranged for 1435 (military time for 2:35p). And then, it’ll be 4 weeks before I’ll be in contact with the rest of the world again. I hope things go smoothly. I guess I should say Merry Christmas and Happy New Year!! See you in 2011!

McMurdo Station

So, this is my second day in Antarctica, and I’ve finally had a chance to settle down and explore the station a bit. McMurdo is basically a small town. There’s a post office, a store, a large cafeteria, several dormitory buildings, an information building, a science/lab center, a radio center, several warehouses for gear, a chapel, several administrative buildings, a coffee shop, two bars, a gym, a weight room, and a rec center. The population of McMurdo is 1,100 people, with 72% men and 28% women. A large portion of the community is scientific, but a large portion is also composed of support personnel. Many people who are interested in coming to Antarctica but aren’t able to in a scientific capacity come as support personnel, such as helicopter pilots, kitchen staff, mechanics, radio techs, training personnel, waste disposal crew, or vehicle operators. The community here is very small and great. It’s a really interesting place – something I’ll probably never encounter again.

 Me in Antarctica!

 Town!

 The view from Crary Lab (the main science building in McMurdo)

Although it is the summer (and the sun shines all day here), it is still quite cold. It’s roughly -10C on average, though it can get much colder with wind chill (roughly -20C). But the cold is not terrible because we are located on the coast (which tends to be warmer than the interior of the continent – the South Pole is roughly -40C right now!). The dryness is actually much worse. Because Antarctica is so dry (remember it’s actually just a huge desert), my skin is constantly cracking. And with a runny nose, I am constantly blowing my nose, so my face is really quite tender. I’ve started putting thick lotion on every day and re-applying to protect my skin. I’ve also been drinking a lot of water – it’s surprising how dehydrated you can get when it’s cold and you forget to drink!  

McMurdo is located right on the coast, next to the Ross Sea. There are a number of mountains in the region that provide a really scenic landscape. It really is beautiful here.

In the distance you see the sea-ice landing strip and the Royal Society Range in the background.

Because the weather in Antarctica is very unpredictable, it is constantly under surveillance, especially to keep an eye on those working out in the field or around the station. There are 3 designations for weather: Condition 3 is good visibility weather; Condition 2 is poor visibility weather; and Condition 1 is very poor visibility weather (~5ft) and all personnel are required to stay under cover. So far the weather has been great – all Condition 3. I hope the weather stays ok because tomorrow I head off to Snow School! Hope I survive!

On the Ice!!!

I am on ANTARCTICA!!! And it’s AMAZING!!!! This is actually a dream come true!!! 

But first let me tell you how I got here. My day started at 6:00 AM, when I got ready for a 7:15a shuttle ride over to the United States Antarctic Program (USAP) aircraft hangar. At the hangar, I checked in my 2 orange bags of gear, keeping with me my windpants, Big Red (the red parka), goggles, wind hat, balaclava, wind proof down gloves, and boots for when I actually got off the plane onto the Ice. 

Here, I am, pretty excited.

At the hanger, I watched another training film about the flight down to Antarctica and what to expect, and then I boarded a bus and headed over to the C-17 military aircraft taking us down to the Ice. I’ve never been on a military plane, so I wasn’t sure what to expect, but I don’t think I could have ever imagined this….

 

It looks almost like a spaceship!

Obviously, it's not quite as plush as a commercial flight. In fact, everyone had to wear ear plugs because it was so loud! The flight itself was almost 6 hours long, so they gave us bagged lunches with two sandwiches inside (in case we boomerang). I slept through most of the flight, waking up towards the end to catch our first glimpse of Antarctica (the Antarctic Peninsula!) and some sea-ice. It was pretty incredible!

Finally, we could feel the plane touching down on the Ice. Everyone was pretty excited! 

 A very big smile.

 Putting on all our gear! Ready to de-board.

 WHOOOHOOOO!!! ANTARCTICA!!!

There was a flurry of picture taking before we were all loaded up on ice trucks and taken up to McMurdo Station. I didn’t know it at the time, but we actually landed on the ice covered Ross Sea!! When I think about, I’m really amazed. The sea ice at this time of year is only a couple meters thick – and then it’s just icy cold waters of the ocean below…..it really is incredible how strong the sea ice is!

Once at McMurdo, we were again hustled into another orientation. We were introduced to the layout of the station, oriented to the science labs, ordered into our housing units, and given a schedule of more mandatory orientations. It looks like I’ll be heading out to Snow School on Dec 3!! I’m really excited! Snow School is a mandatory field orientation to those heading out to the field for research, and it is essentially basic survival training in Antarctica – it’ll be my first real taste of Antarctica! I can’t wait!

 

Heading South for the Winter

Q. Who heads south for the winter?

a. all birds

b. migratory birds

c. Antarctic scientists working during the austral summer

d. trees

e. both b and c

Almost there!!!! I’ve flown for roughly 20 hours, and it’s taken me two days, but I’m finally in Christchurch, New Zealand. My journey has been long, but luckily not very lonely. I met a bunch of other Antarctic-bound scientists in L.A., which was great. The people I met are part of a meteorite research group, composed of a collection of people (most of whom had never met each other before) with different backgrounds (from geologists to astronauts!) We were all given hotel accommodations around Christchurch, and we all had appointment times at the Clothing Distribution Center (CDC) at the same time, so I just tagged along with my fellow adventurers. 

Christchurch is beautiful….and small. New Zealand has more sheep than people! Just like there are more penguins than people on Antarctica!

 

This picture was taken on a hike I took up Bridle Path (just outside of the city).

So the main reason why we are in Christchurch is because the CDC is located here, and we all need to obtain our Extreme Cold Weather gear (ECW) BEFORE heading to the Ice. So, we all went to the CDC and got fitted. That was a process! We received 2 orange bags filled with gear which we had to go through and try on. There were 6 pairs of wool socks, 5 different types of gloves (1 pair of wool mittens, 1 pair of leather mittens, 1 pair of wind-proof down mittens, 1 pair of leather work gloves, and 2 pairs of liner gloves to wear inside the other gloves), 3 different types of hats (1 fleece hat, 1 balaclava, 1 wind hat), 4 different bottom layers (1 pair of light thermal underwear, 1 pair of midweight fleece pants, 1 pair of heavyweight fleece pants, 1 pair of wind pants), 5 different top layers (1 light thermal top, 1 midweight fleece top, 1 heavy fleece jacket, 1 expedition jacket known as ‘Little Red,’ 1 red parka known as ‘Big Red.’), goggles, a neck gaiter, and heavy duty FDX boots. We had to try on every piece of gear to make sure it fit because getting extra gear is tough out on the ice - they don’t have such a well-stocked CDC on Antarctica. If you want to know more about the gear I was issued, check out the entry ‘Bundling Up!’

So here I am, ready to try on everything.

 

And, here I am, sweating profusely, in all my gear.

Once all the gear was checked out, we watched a short film about what to expect in terms of preparing for heading to the Ice, and then we got our flight details! Looks like I’m going to Antarctica TOMORROW!!! If the weather is ok and there aren’t any other mishaps, I’ll be heading out to Antarctica on the next military plane. There is a chance we might ‘boomerang,’ our flight will have to return to Christchurch, if there’s poor weather, but hopefully we won’t have to. The record number of boomerangs is 7!! Boomerangs aren’t very common, but it is not unheard of because of the very unpredictable weather around the Ice. I really hope we make it the first time around!
 

Deployment Details

HOORAAYYY!!! I finally received my deployment information - it’s official....

I’M GOING TO ANTARCTICA!!!!

I’ll be flying out on Sat, Nov 27 from Newark, NJ to Christchurch, New Zealand. In New Zealand, I’ll have a couple of days to get my extreme weather clothing and arrange a flight to the ‘Ice,’ as they say. Once on the Ice, I’ll be located at McMurdo Station, where I’ll have a number of orientations and then Snow School (basically basic training for Antarctic survival) before I take a helicopter out to the field site. Hopefully, I’ll be in the field by Dec 5. But inclement weather oftentimes causes delays. Nevertheless....I’M SO EXCITED!!

In just two weeks, I’m heading off for a once in a lifetime adventure. It’s an adventure I’ve never dreamed of experiencing, but I can’t wait. I’m traveling to the end of the Earth, and I wonder what I’ll find...

Bundling Up!

Antarctica is one of the extremest environments on Earth. So it goes without saying that it takes extreme gear to survive here. Luckily, the NSF makes sure that every person deployed to the Ice has the proper gear. Most Antarctic voyagers deploy from the United States and are flown to Christchurch, New Zealand, where they await transport to one of the stations in Antarctica. While they are waiting, they are outfitted at the Clothing Distribution Center (CDC) with Extreme Cold Weather (ECW) gear. This gear includes all of the clothing we need to survive in the harsh, frigid environment. A sample of issued clothing can be seen below.

Appropriate clothing for the Antarctic consists of many layers.

Base layer: this layer is a soft, comfortable layer that does it’s best to keep you warm and dry. Generally, most people think of this as ‘thermal underwear.’ It is important that this base layer is not made of cotton because cotton tends to hold onto moisture, making you colder!

Insulating layer: this layer depends mostly on how cold the environment is. Generally, woolen sweaters, fleece, or thick shirts are appropriate insulating layers.

Outer shell: this layer protects you directly from the elements. Generally called a parka (see the red jacket to the far left in the image above). Depending on the environments, most outer layers are waterproof, but don’t necessarily have to be.

Hands and Feet: in extreme cold, your hands and feet feel very cold because of poor blood circulation and the fact that they have such large surface areas from which heat escapes. So, it’s very important to wear proper gear: wool or polyester socks work well, and layering gloves works very well as well.

Head: they say, ‘if your feet are cold, cover your head.’ You lose most of your heat through your head, so it’s very important to wear a hat to prevent unnecessary heat loss from your body.

So, what else do you bring for 4 weeks, living in a tent in the Dry Valleys of Antarctica? Well, although you are issued all of the necessary gear, most people also like to bring their own additional gear (this usually includes additional base layers and wool socks). I’m also bringing extra pairs of glasses and artic-grade prescription sunglasses to protect my eyes from intense UV exposure, as well as heavy duty sunscreen prescription (100+ SPF) to protect my skin from the UV exposure.

One thing that most people would not have guessed I’m bringing is baby-wipes! Four weeks in a tent, in the Antarctic, without a shower, and only 3 changes of clothes and no laundry, can be pretty dirty.....And because water is a scarce resource out in the Dry Valleys (melting ice is prohibited - in the effort to keep human impacts on the environment at a minimum), bathing is not really an option. In order to ‘shower,’ using baby-wipes is the next best option. I’ve never showered by ‘baby-wipe’ so this will be an interesting experience for me......we’ll see.....I’ll let you know how well it all works out!

And now, all that awaits are my deployment details......woohooo!!!!

Getting PQ’d

An arduous process....getting PQ’d (or Physically Qualified) to go to Antarctica consists of a series of medical and dental checks that ensure that you are physically healthy enough for a season in the extreme conditions in Antarctica, where medical facilities are limited in their ability to address major medical issues. Any serious medical problems would require patients to be airlifted or shipped by boat to the nearest capable medical facility, likely in New Zealand or South America. To avoid any costly and possibly fatal risky situations, getting PQ’d is a critical step in getting clearance to go to Antarctica.

Separate qualifications are required depending on whether you are a winter-over (Feb-Oct) or summer-over (Oct-Feb) traveller. A more extensive medical check is required for winter-over candidates, who will be spending nearly 6 months in complete darkness (due to the lack of incoming sunlight in the Southern Hemisphere during the austral winter). Winter-over candidates must also undergo psychological testing, which evaluates their ability to cope with these unique stresses.

As a summer-over candidate, I did not have to go for psychological testing, though I did have to complete a series of intensive medical checks, which included a full physical, a tuberculin skin test, a 12 Lead EKG, and a full blood and urine test. I also had to provide full dental x-rays to the contractor evaluating my health review. The whole process was actually quite straight-forward. I was provided with ‘Dear Doctor’ and ‘Dear Dentist’ letters to give to my care-providers, which contained information about what, why, and when all of these pieces of information were required. All of these tests need to be submitted 8 weeks before your supposed deployment date to Raytheon Polar Services Company, a contractor that works specifically with the Office of Polar Programs in the National Science Foundation, supporting the United States Antarctic Program (USAP).

After submitting your paperwork, you are reviewed by the Raytheon Medical Department. Luckily, I was just PQ’d for summer deployment! It’s always a little nerve-wracking to go through such extensive medical checks, especially since you never really know what you may find out. But, what a relief!!!

Now that I’m PQ’d, the next step is to wait for deployment details, which are generally received ~3 weeks before your supposed deployment date (Nov 27, 2010 for me!). But before then....it’s time to think about what I should bring....

Preparing for Antarctica

The preparations begin months in advance. Most research projects conducted in Antarctica are approved and funded by the National Science Foundation (NSF), which is the major source of federal money supporting research in science and engineering in the United States. The NSF receives roughly 40,000 proposals a year, funding about 10,000 of these proposals after grants undergo an extensive merit review process. The National Science Foundation supports numerous collaborations and projects that promote the progress of science with the intention of advancing national safety, prosperity, and health. Without funding from the NSF, many of the advancements in science we have achieved today would probably still seem like science fiction we could only dream up in movies.  

Luckily, the National Science Foundation has supported and continues to support research in Antarctica. I will be heading out to ‘The Ice’ as they say, this austral summer 2010 with a group of geomorphologists to the Dry Valleys of Antarctica, a region located in the Transantarctic Mountain range (see image below).
I guess I should give you a little background as to who I am and what I do. I am a graduate student at Princeton University, studying paleoclimate using geochemical methods. Specifically, I analyze the trapped air preserved in ice from Antarctica with the intention of extending the record of atmospheric composition through time. Extending the current record, which goes back 800,000 years, could provide vital information about the climate-greenhouse gas forcing relationship, which can elucidate how humans may be affecting global climate today. I have been collaborating with several geomorphologists at Boston University, working specifically in a region called the Dry Valleys of Antarctica, where unique conditions allow ice of great antiquity (estimated to 4 Ma in our field region) to be preserved. I have been analyzing the air trapped in this ice to see whether paleoatmosphere as old as 4 Ma is actually well-preserved in these samples. If you want to know more, you can check out my research page for specifics (http://www.princeton.edu/~ayau/Audrey_M_Yau/Home.html).

The objectives of this field season are many. One of the overarching goals that is particularly interesting is to gather physical data with which to better understand the climate evolution of Antarctica over the Cenozoic (the last 65 Ma). Antarctica has not always been glaciated! Small, transient ice-sheets first began to appear in Antarctica roughly 34 Ma. At this time, Antarctica was more of a tundra type environment. Then approximately 14.1-13.8 Ma, full blown mega-glaciation of Antarctica occurred, associated with roughly an 8C cooling of the continent. This mega-glacier has been estimated to be roughly 1.5 times larger than today’s Antarctic ice sheet! Remnants of this mega-glaciation may still be found in the Dry Valleys, which is of particular importance to geomorphologists and climate scientists interested in reconstructing global climate processes.

I will be helping the team collect data that will help pull bits of this story together. I’m really excited to have this opportunity!!! I mean, not many people have the opportunity to go into the sciences and do research as ‘cool’ as this!!!

But, there’s still quite a few things I have to do before I can deploy to Antarctica. My deployment date is set for sometime around Nov 27, 2010. But before then, I still have a series of medical and dental checks to go through before I get my actual itinerary and finalized deployment date....

Antarctica - The Research

As the only continent protected for scientific purposes, Antarctica is the largest natural field experiment on Earth. Research here covers many areas including geology, biology, oceanography, meteorology, glaciology, physics, astronomy, and chemistry. Here are some topics of research that are of particular interest.

Geochemistry: Earth’s Climate History from Ice Cores

Trapped air in bubbles in glacial ice preserve bits of atmosphere over hundreds of thousands to possibly millions of years. These bits of ‘paleoatmosphere’ can be analyzed to reconstruct atmospheric compositions through geologic time. Of particular interest are the concentrations of greenhouse gases, namely carbon dioxide and methane. Currently, the paleoatmospheric record from ice cores goes back just over 800,000 years. These data have been the key pieces helping our understanding of the climate-greenhouse gas relationship (see graph below from Luthi et al, 2008). As the direct paleoatmospheric concentrations come only from ice core records, other media only provide proxies for paleoatmospheric concentrations, a large effort has been focused on two goals: 1. to extend the record by retrieving older ice, and 2. to build a higher resolution record by retrieving ice from locations of high accumulation.

Geology: Solar System History from Meteorites

Meteorites are found in abundance in Antarctica. Unlike meteorites found in more temperate regions with higher weathering rates, meteorites collected in Antarctica are well-preserved. They are also easily found due to the relatively stagnant environment. Meteorites sample some of the oldest material in the Solar System, providing clues into the origin, chemical and physical evolution, and composition of other planets, the Moon, the Sun, and asteroids. The first meteorite collected in Antarctica was found in 1912. Over 10,000 meteorites have been discovered since then.

Geomorphology: Glacial Ice Flow as an analog to Mars

As an extremely dry, cold region with little to no vegetation for the past 14 Ma, the evolution of the Antarctic landscape has been used as a unique analog for extreme environments. With recent evidence that ice caps and possibly subsurface ice are present on Mars, research has focused on debris-covered glaciers in Antarctica. Studying the dynamics of these glaciers can help provide constraints on physical attributes likely to be observed if subsurface ice does exist on Mars. Other physical processes, such as weathering, rock decay, and glacial flow, also provide important information as to how to interpret wide-scale physical features observed on Earth as well as other planets.

These are only a few research topics covered by a slew of scientists working in Antarctic research. There are many more topics being explored, and probably many more topics we still haven’t even begun to think about.

Antarctica - The Story

Antarctica is one of the most extreme environments on Earth. Considered to be the coldest and driest continent on average, it is actually one of the largest deserts on Earth, with an annual precipitation of just 200 mm. Roughly 98% of Antarctica is covered in ice, and the continent is surrounded by a constantly fluctuating rim of sea-ice that responds to seasonal temperature variations. While Antarctica is the 5th largest continent on Earth, no permanent human residents live here. The first documented landing on Antarctica was reportedly made in February of 1821. The Antarctic Treaty (1959), signed by 46 countries, prohibits development of this unique environment, supporting scientific research and environmental protection. Today, anywhere between 1,000 to 5,000 people of many nationalities are on Antarctica, conducting or supporting scientific research.

The Antarctic ice sheet is incredibly thick, roughly 1.6 km in average thickness, and 4.785 km at its thickest point. That’s equal to roughly 95 Olympic-sized swimming pools in length! The continent holds roughly 90% of the world’s ice, which is equivalent to roughly 70% of the world’s fresh water. This is so much water that if all of the ice on Antarctica melted, global sea levels would rise by roughly 60 meters! While Antarctica is nearly completely ice covered, roughly 2% of the land mass is ice free. Much of that ice free region is located in the Transantarctic Mountains, a mountain range that divides Antarctica into East Antarctica and West Antarctica.

Antarctica is home to one of the most extreme climates on Earth, with temperatures fluctuating on average between -60C in the winter to 10C in the summer. Because the land mass is located at such a high latitude (>60S), seasonal effects are much stronger here. During the height of summer, sunlight persists 24 hours a day and is absent during the peak of winter. As Antarctica is at the South Pole, the thinner ozone layer causes intense UV exposure to be a point of major concern. Though the extreme cold, UV exposure, and psychological effects of the temperature and light conditions are major health risks, luckily, large predators are not! Antarctica is home to very few terrestrial vertebrates. These include penguins, seals, albatross, as well as many other bird species. The polar bear is not found on Antarctica - it is native to the Arctic. A wide array of invertebrates such as nematodes and microscopic mites are found here as well.

As the only continent on Earth dedicated to scientific pursuits with no political borders, a number of permanent research stations from many different countries are located on Antarctica. These include:

Permanent Station                                                      Country               Established
Vernadsky Research Base                                            Ukraine                    1994
Amundsen-Scott South Pole Station                            USA                         1957
Artigas Base                                                                 Uruguay                   1984
Belgrano II                                                                   Argentina                 1979
Bellingshausen Station                                                 Russia                      1968
Bernardo O’Higgins Station                                         Chile                        1948
Captain Arturo Prat Base                                             Chile                        1947
Casey Station                                                               Australia                  1959
Comandante Ferraz Base                                             Brazil                       1984
Concordia Station                                                         France/Italy             2005
Davis Station                                                                Australia                  1957
Dome Fuji Station                                                        Japan                       1995
Dumont d’Urville Station                                             France                     1956
Base Presidente Eduardo Frei Montalva                      Chile                        1969
Esperanza Base                                                            Argentina                 1975
Great Wall Station                                                        China                       1985
Halley Research Station                                               UK                           1956
Henryk Arctowski Station                                            Poland                     1977
Jubany                                                                          Argentina                 1953
King Sejong Station                                                     South Korea            1988
Macquarie Island Station                                             Australia                  1911
Maitri Station                                                               India                        1989
Marambio Base                                                            Argentina                1969
Mawson Station                                                           Australia                  1954
McMurdo Station                                                         US                           1956
Mirny Station                                                               Russia                     1956
Neumayer Station                                                        Germany                  1992
Neumayer Station III                                                   Germany                  2009
Novolazarevskaya Station                                           Russia                      1961
Orcadas Base                                                               Argentina                 1904
Palmer Station                                                             US                           1968
Princess Elisabeth Base                                               Belgium                   2007
Professor Julio Escudero Base                                    Chile                        1994
Rothera Research Station                                            UK                           1975
San Martin Base                                                          Argentina                 1951
SANAE IV                                                                  South Africa            1962
St. Kliment Ohridski Base                                          Bulgaria                   1988
Scott Base                                                                   New Zealand            1957
Showa Station                                                             Japan                        1958
Siple Station                                                                US                           1973
Troll Station                                                                Norway                    1990
Vostok Station                                                             Russia                      1957
Zhongshan Station                                                      China                        1989
Willard Research Station                                            US                            1980

Scientific research has been conducted on Antarctica for over a century now on topics ranging from Solar System origins, climate change, and the evolution of life. Fortunately, due to its extremely remote location and international efforts to protect this unique environment, Antarctica is one of the most unaltered landscapes left on Earth.